Japanese Internment Camps free essay sample

People argued that the Japanese aliens in the United States posed as a threat but in reality â€Å"more than two-thirds of the Japanese who were interned in the spring of 1942 were citizens of the United States† (Ross). The Nikkei had the same rights as any other American citizen, yet they were still interned. The public skipped to the conclusion that all people of Japanese ancestry were saboteurs which heightened racial prejudices. Furthermore, the accusation of disloyalty among Japanese Americans caused the state department to send Agent Curtis B. Munson to investigate this issue among the Japanese Americans; he concluded â€Å"there is no Japanese problem on the west coast†¦a remarkable, even extraordinary degree of loyalty among this generally suspect ethnic group† (Chronology). Munson’s report stated that there was no military necessity for mass incarceration of these people, yet the government ignored and kept the report a secret. Munson’s report could have also calmed the public’s fears, but since government decided not to release it, the people remained quite neurotic. We will write a custom essay sample on Japanese Internment Camps or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The public continued to assume that all Nikkei were disloyal ecause of their racial background. This racial prejudice resulted in the relocation of thousands of innocent people. Public hysteria and racism influenced the government’s actions towards the Japanese Americans since â€Å"the general public believed, erroneously, that there were Japanese saboteurs active along the Pacific Coast† (Hata). This fear of sabotage from the Nikkei caused the urge for government to issue Executive Order 9066 to pacify the anti-Japanese public groups, although the Munson report stated to react otherwise. Since the government needed a legitimate excuse rather than discrimination, the order was based on a false claim of military necessity (Hata). If only the government exposed Munson’s report and was not greatly influenced by the public, there would have been no need to evacuate the wrongly-accused Japanese Americans. The internment of Japanese Americans unlawfully took away their unconditional rights as citizens. In the cases of Hirabayashi and Korematsu v. United States, â€Å"the defendants argued that their Fifth Amendment rights were violated by the U. S. government because of their ancestry† (Ross). Their right to â€Å"due process of law† had been taken away. The Japanese-American ethnic group was forced out of their homes without a stated crime. In addition, government broke the fourth amendment, the right to a speedy and public trial, when â€Å"Japanese Americans were deprived of their liberty and property by being forcibly removed†¦ without the required statement of charges and trial by jury† (LegiSchool). First they were not informed of their misdeed, and then they were not given the right to a trial. The Nikkei’s rights were stripped away at once with no concrete evidence to support their so-called crime. Furthermore, in Article I Section 9 of the constitutional articles, Habeas Corpus gave citizens the right to be brought before a court, yet â€Å"Japanese Americans were denied the right as detainees to be brought before a court at a stated time and place to challenge the legality of their imprisonment† (LegiSchool). The Nikkei had lost their right to one of the oldest common laws in history. Even as American citizens, they were denied this basic right. Their right to equal protection under law from Section 9 was also taken away because â€Å"the government acted solely on the basis of race and ‘national ancestry’ when identifying persons to be excluded from designated ‘military areas’† (LegiSchool). The public accused the Japanese Americans because of their ancestry, and the government incarcerated them for the public. This proves that the U. S. government acted solely on the public’s discriminatory opinions. The Nikkei was never a real threat to the United States during the war. Every citizen regardless of race or color attains unconditional rights from the U. S. Constitution, yet these rights were abruptly taken away from the Japanese Americans. Executive Order 9066 caused a wasteful attentiveness toward internal issues rather than the external problems of WWII. The internment led to a financial loss for the American government. For example, â€Å"In 1988, the U. S. Congress passed legislation which awarded formal payments of $20,000 each to the surviving internees- $60,000† (Ross). Years after the order was passed, President Reagan was forced to call on congress to budget for this compensation given to the survivors. The money that was given to these survivors could have gone to greater needs if it were not for the relocation action. Furthermore, the economy in the course of WWII was strained with the addition of the establishment of ten internment camps. The â€Å"cost to build [Topaz] was $3,929,000† (Japanese). The total amount to build all ten camps would have been ten times that sum. The barrack-like structures were never even used after WWII, so it was a waste of resources and money. Also, much was wasted on unnecessary consumption, â€Å"28,790,221 meals were served to internees at Manzanar from March 1942, until November 1945, at a cost of $3,384,749. 02† (Manzanar). The internees were forced to rely on the food given to them by the government in the camps although they were capable to buy their own. The system wasted money to feed people that were able to easily feed themselves, if it were not for their internment. This money came from the American citizens’ taxes outside of the internment camps. So in reality, the public that called for internment of the Nikkei, paid for the Japanese American’s meals and other essentials. Lastly, soldiers that could be used for the war effort in the European or Pacific theaters were forced to guard the relocation centers. For example, the Japanese Americans were â€Å"incarcerated for up to four years in prison camps surrounded by barbed wire and guards†(Japanese). This caused there to be less man power in the actual war. The troops that suffered during the war lacked men because those soldiers had to guard fellow Americans. Ironically, the Americans aimed guns at other Americans during the war. The government’s decision to intern Japanese Americans resulted in a negative lapse in American history. It was a step back from equality for all due to the Executive Order 9066 because â€Å"Japanese Americans were deprived of their liberty and property by the State, when forced from their jobs, homes, and communities into barbed wire, guarded centers and camps† (LegiSchool). It took over 200 years to establish the rights and laws to protect American citizens, yet they were taken away instantly. The hardships from struggles over freedom and equality were for nothing at this point in time. In addition, the case of Korematsu vs. United States: â€Å"remains the best known constitutional challenge brought on by Asian Americans as well as the most important source of the standard known as ‘strict scrutiny,’ which marks the constitutional limits of public use of racial classifications and private use of racial generalization† (Randall). It argued that racism affected the better judgment of the rights that the U. S. constitution guaranteed to all citizens. This questioned the power of the constitution over American citizens. Since it did not protect the rights of the Nikkei from discrimination, then it cannot protect any other citizen’s rights. It revealed a flaw in the document. Lastly, the treatment of the Japanese Americans in the camps were unfair and harsh where â€Å"row upon row foundations showed how more than ten thousand people squeezed in one square mile, surrounded by barbed wire, searchlights, and armed guards† (Kleffman). These people were treated like prisoners rather than relocated citizens under the protection of the government. The United States had wronged the Nikkei as Hitler had wronged the Jews; although they were extremely different levels of prejudice, it was still the same objective. This halted American progress of freedom and equality for all. The internment of the Japanese Americans during WWII was a wasteful and avoidable task that also questioned the power of the U. S. constitution and the rights of American citizens. The government submitted to the public’s fear and racism toward the Nikkei, which ultimately led to the loss of their rights. This decision not only affected the Japanese American citizens, but the system itself. It took an economic toll on the government from the toils of the camps and pensions to the internees. These actions took away from the needed focus on WWI, too. The impact of the unjust relocation of the Japanese Americans needs to remain fresh in the minds of all Americans so this type of event will never happen again. After all, the relocation policy was neither helpful nor productive, if anything it was pernicious to the country. Works Cited Hata, Donald T. , and Nadine Ishitani Hata.

Teaching the Teacher Using the Train the Trainer Model

Teaching the Teacher Using the Train the Trainer Model Too often, the last thing any teacher wants after a day of teaching in the classroom is to attend professional development (PD). But, just like their students, teachers at every grade-level need ongoing education to keep up with educational trends, district initiatives, or curriculum changes. Therefore, the designers of teacher PD must consider how to engage and motivate teachers using a model that is meaningful and effective. One model that has demonstrated its effectiveness in PD is known as the Train the Trainer model. What Is the Train the Trainer Model? According to the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, Train the Trainer means: initially training a person or people who, in turn, train other people at their home agency. For example, in a Train the Trainer model, a school or district may determine that question and answer techniques need to be improved. The PD designers would select a teacher,  or group of teachers,  to receive extensive training in question and answering techniques. This teacher, or group of teachers, would, in turn, train their fellow teachers in effective use of question and answering techniques.   The Train the Trainer model is similar to peer-to-peer instruction, which is widely recognized as an effective strategy for all learners in all subject areas. Selecting teachers to act as trainers for other teachers has many advantages including reducing costs, increasing communication, and improving school culture. Advantages to Train the Trainer One major advantage to the Train the Trainer model is how it can assure fidelity to a particular program or strategy for  teaching. Each trainer disseminates prepared materials in exactly the same way. During the PD, the trainer in this model is similar to a clone and will stick to a script without making any changes. This makes the Train the Trainer model for PD ideal for large school districts who need continuity in training order to measure the effectiveness of a curriculum between schools. The use of the Train the Trainer model can also help districts to provide a consistent professional learning process for compliance with mandated local, state, or federal requirements. A trainer in this model may be expected to use the methods and materials provided in the training in their own classrooms and perhaps to model for fellow teachers. A trainer may also provide interdisciplinary or cross-curricular professional development for other content-area teachers.   The use of the Train the Trainer model in PD is cost effective. It is less costly to send one teacher or a small team of teachers out for expensive training so that they can return with the knowledge to teach many others. It can also more cost effective to use the trainers as experts who are provided time to revisit teacher classrooms to measure the effectiveness of the training or to model the training throughout the school year. The Train the Trainer model can shorten the timetable for new initiatives. Instead of the lengthy process of training of one teacher at a time, a team can be trained at once. Once the team is ready, the coordinated PD sessions can be offered for teachers simultaneously and initiatives put in place in a timely manner. Finally, teachers are more likely to seek advice from other teachers than from an outside specialist. Using teachers who are already familiar with the school culture and the school setting is an advantage, especially during presentations.  Most teachers know each other, personally or by reputation within a school or district. The development of teachers as trainers within a school or district can set up new pathways of communication or networking. Training teachers as experts can also increase leadership capacity in a school or district. Research on Train the Trainer There are several studies that illustrate the effectiveness on Train the Trainer method. One study (2011) focused on special education teachers who delivered such training that was a â€Å"cost-effective and sustainable method for improving the access to and accuracy of teacher-implemented [training].† Other studies have shown the effectiveness of the train the trainer model including: (2012) food safety initiative and  (2014) science literacy, as well as for social issues as seen in the Report on Bullying Prevention and Intervention Professional Development by the Massachusetts Department of  Elementary and Secondary Education (2010). The practice of Train the Trainer has been used nationally for many years. Initiatives from the National Literacy and National Numeracy Centers have provided leadership and training for educational institutions and consultants, who â€Å"train school heads, lead math teachers and expert literacy teachers, who in turn train other teachers​.† One drawback to the Train the Trainer model is that the PD is usually scripted in order to serve a specific purpose or to address a specific need. In larger districts, however, the needs of a school, classroom or teacher may differ and the PD delivered according to a script may not be as relevant. The Train the Trainer model is not flexible and may not include opportunities for differentiation unless the trainers are provided materials that can be tailored for a school or classroom. Choosing the Trainer(s) The selection of a teacher is the most critical part in developing the train the trainer model. The teacher selected as a trainer must be well-respected and able to lead teacher discussions as well as listen to his or her peers. The teacher selected should be prepared to help teachers to link the training to instruction and to demonstrate how to measure success. The teacher selected must be able to share results (data) on student growth that is based on training. Most important, the teacher selected must be reflective, be able to accept teacher feedback, and above all, maintain a positive attitude.   Designing Professional Development Before implementing the Train the Trainer model, the designers of professional development in any school district should consider the four principles that American educator Malcolm Knowles theorized about adult education or andragogy.  Andragogy refers to â€Å"man led† rather than pedagogy which uses â€Å"ped† meaning â€Å"child† at its root. Knowles proposed (1980) principles he believed were critical for adult learning. Designers of PD and trainers should have some familiarity with these principles as they prepare the trainers for their adult learners.  An explanation for application in education follows each principle: Adult learners have a need to be self-directing. This means instruction is effective when teachers have been involved in the planning and in the evaluation of their professional development. Train the trainer models are effective when they respond to teacher needs or requests.Readiness for learning increases when there is a specific need to know. This means that teachers learn best, like their students, when the professional development is central to their performance.  Life’s reservoir of experience is a primary learning resource; the life experiences of others add enrichment to the learning process. This means that what teachers experience, including their mistakes, is critical because teachers attach more meaning to experience rather than knowledge that they acquire passively.Adult learners have an inherent need for immediacy of application.  A teacher’s interest in learning is increased when professional development has immediate relevance and impact to teacherà ¢â‚¬â„¢s job or personal life. Trainers should know that Knowles also suggested that adult learning is more successful when it is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.   Final Thoughts Just as the teacher does in the classroom, the trainer’s role during PD  is to create and maintain a supportive climate so that the instruction designed for teachers can take place. Some good practices for the trainer include: Be respectful of fellow teachers.Show enthusiasm about the training topic.Be clear and direct in order to avoid miscommunication.Ask questions in order to receive feedback.Use â€Å"Wait Time† to encourage questions and allow time to think about an answer or response. Teachers understand firsthand how mind-numbing an afternoon of PD could be, so using teachers in the Train the Trainer model has the benefit of adding  elements of camaraderie, appreciation, or empathy to professional development. Trainers will work hard to meet the challenge of keeping their peers engaged while teachers who are learning may be more motivated to listen to their peers rather than a consultant out of the district. Ultimately, using the Train the Trainer model may mean highly effective and less  boring professional development simply because it is peer-led professional development.

SMALL BUSINESS ASSOCIATION'S WEBSITE - CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION AND Essay

SMALL BUSINESS ASSOCIATION'S WEBSITE - CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT - Essay Example The SBA loans are according to the nature of business and not the owners. That is, SBA provides loans to the business and not the individual (Business loans and grants ). As an entrepreneur who wants to invest in childcare and housing business, one is able to access several grants from the government. These grants include the small business grant worth $1000 that is available to one who owns or is starting a business, Homeless providers grant that is available for a business that houses homeless people and the transitional housing assistance program grant. These grants could be helpful to begin the business (Business loans and grants ). To venture into the above business, there are four steps to undertake to develop the business plan. The first step is for the owner to know the business. To achieve this step, one should research and read everything available concerning the business. The second step is outlining the purpose intended for the plan. This would act as a guide during constructing the plan. The third step is determining the audience that the business would serve. The idea is to include the customers interest in the plan. Finally, construct the plan (Stanberry

Marketing & Entrepreneuriship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Marketing & Entrepreneuriship - Essay Example In order to critically evaluate the factors which determine entrepreneurial success, it is imperative to begin by explaining the meaning of entrepreneurship in order to gain a clear understanding of the whole concept. Entrepreneurship is loosely defined as the emergence and growth of new businesses. Timmons believes that entrepreneurship is the process of creating or seizing an opportunity and pursuing it regardless of the resources currently controlled. Small to medium businesses are the dominant forms of business developed by entrepreneurs in the economy and is going to be discussed below, the success of this kind of business can be attributed to many factors. For instance, venturing into a mobile business which offers fast foods is a good example of entrepreneurship given that an entrepreneur can capitalize on the opportunity of satisfying the needs of the customers who do not wish to visit restaurants. However, it is not an easy feat to successfully operate in this venture withou t taking into consideration some of the following factors. Creativity and innovation are the major factors that can lead to the success of small business. Creativity can involve the adjustment or refinement of existing procedures or products, the identification of opportunities and the identification of solutions to problems. Basically, creativity involves new ideas and every person who establishes an enterprise, adds value and strives to ensure that the enterprise continues to exist and this person is involved in economic creation.

Monetary Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Monetary Economics - Essay Example The area of concern in this research paper is to evaluate the transaction demand for money. The transaction demand for money is the money held for purchasing everyday goods from the market. Transaction demand for money for the individuals is initiated by their requirements of paying rent, mortgage payments, monthly bills, and car payments among others (Tata McGraw Hill Companies, 2002). Transaction motive of holding money is initiated also among businesses as the business houses require money in their accounts for meeting their payrolls and paying the bills. Before discussing the reasons as to why it is believed that transaction demand for money is interest elastic, it is essential to discuss the relationship that interest rates have on the demand for money. The demand for money or the quantity of money held decreases with the increase in the interest rates. The substitute or the alternative for holding assets other than the form of money is to hold them as a certain form of paper th at bears interest. Thus, as the interest rate is increased, the attraction towards the assets increases and urges to hold money decreases (Tata McGraw Hill Companies, 2002). After the brief discussion on how the transaction demand for money can possibly become interest elastic, it will be easier to understand the reason behind the belief. 2.0. Transaction Demand for Money According to Keynes, transaction demand for money relates to â€Å"the need of cash for the current transactions of personal and business exchange†. The transaction motive is further divided into income motive and business motive. The motive of income is aimed at bridging the interval between the income receipt and disbursements. In the same manner, business motive is the bridging of interval between the costs incurred in business and the receipts of the proceeds of the sales. In both the cases, if the interval is less, then individuals will strive to hold less cash or the transaction demand for money will b e less and vice-versa. Thus, it is evident that the transaction demand for money has a ‘direct positive relationship’ with the level of income (SVMMBA, 2010). 2.1. Transaction Demand and Interest Rate Keynes did not explain the importance of the interest rates in the analysis of his part of the theory of demand for money. However, in the later years, two of the post Keynesian economists, James Tobin and William J. Baumol have depicted the importance of interest rates as a determinant of the transactions demand for money. These economists have mentioned that there is no linear and proportional relationship between the income and transaction demand for money. According to them, income changes lead to smaller amount of proportional changes in the transaction demand for money (SVMMBA, 2010). Individuals hold transaction balances because income that is received only once in a month is not spent by them in a single day. In fact, this is the common nature of the individuals th at they spread evenly the expenditure over the period of the month. Thus, a part of the money that is meant for the purpose of transaction spending can be invested or spent on short-term securities that yield interests. It is likely to put the funds for the purpose of making them work for a few days, say a week, ten days or even a month. The investment can be on short term interest bearing securities such as short-term money market instruments or commercial papers and

Misuse Of Drugs And Alcohol: Effect on Children

Misuse Of Drugs And Alcohol: Effect on Children This research proposal concerns the investigation and analysis of the impact of parental misuse of alcohol on children. The perceptions of policy makers and members of society in the UK have for many years acknowledged the negative consequences of excessive alcohol consumption on health, behaviour and public safety. Such perceptions have in turn resulted in curbs on sale of alcohol to young people and to restrictions on driving under its influence. Social workers along with professionals in areas like health, medicine and law and order are also working towards reducing domestic violence and disruption on account of alcohol misuse (Bancroft, et al, 2005, p 47). The impact of parental alcohol misuse on children has however been largely ignored, even in the midst of growing concern about increasing alcohol consumption; especially amongst young people (Murray, 2005, p 7). Recent reports highlight that children numbering more than 2.6 million in the UK live with dangerous drinkers, even as more than 8 million children are adversely affected by alcohol misuse of family members. Families where parents misuse alcohol are by and large characterised by poorer functioning. Such families are perceived to lack cohesion, ritual and routines; they have (a) lesser levels of verbal and physical expression, display of positive feelings, and caring and warmth, and (b) greater degrees of unresolved conflict (Murray, 2005, p 9). Misuse of alcohol by parents is seen to be causal in (a) adverse physiological and physical outcomes for children and (b) fostering of environments that are unfit for children, both for development and for living. Such environments are marked by numerous incidences of neglect and direct or indirect violence (Harwin Forrester, 2002, p 84). There is a great deal of evidence to show that parental alcohol misuse can harm children in diverse ways and lead to behavioural difficulties in early and later life. Children exposed to domestic conditions of parental alcohol misuse are less likely to do well in the classroom and appear to be more prone to mental health problems in later life (Harwin Forrester, 2002, p 85). Evidence also suggests that a huge majority of alcohol dependent people in the UK had alcohol misusers for parents and work towards perpetuating the cycle for future generations (Kroll Taylor, 2003, p 25). There is also disturbing evidence to reveal that parental misuse of alcohol is significantly associated with deaths and serious abuse. Studies of adults, who are homeless, imprisoned or have substance misuse problems show significant association of such people with parents who misuse alcohol (Kroll Taylor, 2003, p 27). 1.2. Aims and Objectives The proposed research study aims to study the impact of parental misuse of alcohol in detail, with specific regard its relevance for social work theory and practice. The objectives of the dissertation are as under: To investigate the short and long term consequences of parental alcohol misuse on children? To investigate the relevance of the issue in current social work theory and practice? To assess the rationale, validity and effectiveness of current social work approaches in improving the situation, with regard to both results and costs To provide recommendations on improving policy and practice approaches towards improving outcomes for children of parents with alcohol misuse problems. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Short and Long Term Consequences of Parental Alcohol Misuse on Children Research reveals that children of parents who misuse alcohol consumption can suffer from a variety of physical, psychological and behavioural problems with short and long term outcomes. As alcohol problems differ in character, severity and time period, their impact upon children also varies (Murray, 2005, p 4). It is however clear from national and international studies that the children of families in which one or both parents engage in alcohol abuse have greater problems than others. Seven important features of the family lives of these children, namely (1) roles, (2) rituals, (3) routines, (4) social life, (5) finances, (6) communication, and (7) conflict could be adversely affected (Murray, 2005, p 5). Whilst parents with alcohol abuse problems cannot certainly be equated with bad or uncaring parents, research does suggest that alcohol problems adversely affect parenting quality. Excessive drinking can make individuals emotionally unavailable, unpredictable and inconsistent and result in passive, neglectful or even harsh parenting (Grekin, et al, 2005, p 15). With children learning from their parents about who they are, particularly in relation to others, children of parents who engage in alcohol abuse are likely to get ambiguous and inconsistent information, mainly because of the unpredictability on the behaviour and responses of such parents (Grekin, et al, 2005, p 18). Whilst inconsistency occurs mainly on account of the unpredictable way in which such parents behave, such impulsiveness and irresponsibility in their behaviour results in the imposition of responsibilities on children that are excessive and beyond their years, which in turn affects their education, their family life and their relationships with their peers (Murray, 2005, p 9). Such children also face high risks of social exclusion because of their urge to conceal their parental drinking from their friends. Such children sometimes carers of their parents, especially in circumstances of domestic violence and can ally with the drinking parent or against him or her. Psychologists and behavioural specialists state that children of problem drinkers could fail to internalise their feelings of worth and trust and often learn not to trust, feel or talk. They may also be worried about the abilities of their parents to safeguard them and thus find it difficult to trust others (Murray, 2005, p 9 ). Children of parents with alcohol problems are at significantly greater risk of witnessing and experiencing verbal, physical, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect. Excessive alcohol consumption plays a major role in 25 to 33 % of known child abuse cases (Kroll Taylor, 2003, p 29). Children of problem drinkers are also extremely likely to blame themselves for the difficulties experienced by their families in naÃÆ' ¯ve attempts to make their environment become better able in supporting them. Such children are also likely to carry their experiences of childhood into adulthood. Unborn children of mothers engaged in alcohol abuse during pregnancy can develop Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), involving a variety of mental and physical health problems (Kroll Taylor, 2003, p 34). 2.2. Resilience among Children of People with Alcohol Consumption Problems Whilst many of the problems described above place significant demands on social workers, especially when they continue through generations, it is also true that some children of parents with drinking problems do not seem to face as many difficulties as others. They appear to have greater resilience (Murray, 2005, p 5). Contemporary research reveals that certain protective processes and factors can reduce the adverse effect of parental alcohol difficulties on children, in the short as well as the long term. Such protective factors include high degrees of confidence and self esteem, self efficacy, ability to handle change, good problem solving skills, strong and positive family functioning, close and positive bonding with one or more caring adults, and good support networks beyond the family (Murray, 2005, p 7). Protective processes on the other hand include planning on behalf of children to make their lives less disruptive by (a) reduction of the impact of risks by altering the exposu re of children to such risks, and (b) development and maintenance of self efficacy and self-esteem and self efficacy, and (c) improving the care provided by parents (Murray, 2005, p 7). 2.3. Social Work Policy and Practice for Children of Parents with Alcohol Related Problems The national policy for dealing with adults with alcohol related problems is fragmented and approaches the issue from different angles. The main components of the governmentà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s national policy towards containment of alcohol misuse are as under (Galvani, 2006, p 3-7): The National Alcohol Harm Reduction strategy for England focused upon the requirement for services in the area of alcohol and domestic abuse to function together to address the issue. The guidance document for the delivery of alcohol strategy acknowledges the requirement for assessment of consequences of alcohol problems on children. The guidance document on alcohol misuse intervention focuses on the ways in which PCTs, along with local authorities, criminal justice agencies and voluntary agencies should understand and implement their roles in dealing with alcohol related crimes. The Drug and Alcohol National Occupational Standards appreciates the requirement for workers to be able to safeguard and reduce the risk of abuse, both by and to their clients. The vision for services for children and young people who are affected by domestic violence guides commissioners on (a) the important aspects of support for children and young people experiencing domestic abuse, (b) assessment of gaps in local services, and (c) their priorities for action. The Children Act 1989 and its subsequent amendments incorporates the witnessing or hearing of bad treatment of children by other persons to be included in parameters for assessment of harm. The National Service Framework for children, young people and maternity services focuses upon relationship conflict and alcohol and drug use as important areas where parents could require early intervention as well as multi-agency support. The 2009 Task Force Report in response to Lord Lamingà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s Report states that many children continue to be at risk of harm on from the people they should otherwise be rely on for care and love and that the government is responsible for doing everything possible to safeguard such vulnerable children (HM Government, 2009, p 29). The 2011 Munro Report on child protection states the need for abandoning the old standardised and bureaucratic approach to child protection and customising services on the basis of the experiences and needs of children Monroe, 2010, p 1). The recently elected coalition government is in the process of assessing and reshaping national policy towards social work and some refocus of attention of policy makers on the consequences of impact of parental alcohol misuse on children is expected. 2.4. Research Questions The aims and objectives of the proposed research, along with the information obtained from a brief review of literature have resulted in the formulation of the following research questions. Research Question 1: What are the short and long term consequences of parental misuse of alcohol on children? Research Question 2: How is current social work policy and practice dealing with this problem? Research Question 3: What is the rationale of existing policies and practices for improving the lives of children threatened by excessive parental consumption of alcohol? Research Question 4: What is the validity of such policies and practices and what is the extent of their effectiveness? Research Question 5: How can current policies and practices be improved for bettering the life outcomes of children at risk from parents who engage in excessive alcohol consumption? 3. Research Method 3.1. Choice of Research Method Social research is by and large conducted with the use of positivist and interpretivist epistemologies, which in turn largely call for the respective use of quantitative and qualitative methods of research (Bryman, 2004, p 43). With the issue under investigation being extremely complex and multifaceted, the use of quantitative methods is hardly likely to yield any substantial or new results. Quantitative surveys on the issue have already revealed the various problems that can stem from excessive alcohol consumption by parents on their children. The use of interpretivist methodology and qualitative research techniques should help in the investigation and analysis of the subject under issue. It is proposed to obtain relevant information on the subject from appropriate primary and secondary sources, whilst information from secondary sources will be obtained from the substantial amount of information and research findings on the subject that is publicly available. The researcher proposes to obtain primary information through the conduct of detailed one-to-one interviews with three social workers who have been closely involved in providing services to the families and children of people suffering from alcohol misuse problems. The interviews will be conducted carefully with the use of a range of open and close ended questions and will hopefully lead to interesting and relevant information. 3.2. Ethics The researcher will take all measures to follow appropriate ethical codes of conduct, with regard to informed consent, confidentiality, absence of coercion, and freedom to answer or not to answer questions. Efforts will be made to ensure that the research is totally original and devoid of any form of plagiarism (Creswell Clark, 2006, p 69).

Idealism in Let America Be America Again by Langston Hughes Essay

Idealism in Let America Be America Again by Langston Hughes      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the poem "Let America Be America Again," Langston Hughes paints a vivid word picture of a depressed America in the 1930's. To many living in America, the idealism presented as the American Dream had escaped their grasp. In this poetic expression, a speaker is allowed to voice the unsung Americans' concern of how America was intended to be, had become to them, and could aspire to be again.    Using a conversational style, the author allows the speaker and listener to interact with each other. The issue addressed is that America is not the democratic ideal of all of its people. The original speaker begins in a fairly common quatrain stanza; however, when the listener is allowed to respond, the stanzas become irregular indicating the passion felt as well as the urgency of the message. The listener's response contains the main idea of the piece, comparing the democratic ideal to the conditions of those who are victims because of race, age, or economic status. The author's careful use of alliteration in phrases such as "pushed apart" (19) and "slavery's scars" (20) emphasizes the struggles and alienation experienced by less fortunate Americans.    The speaker begins the narration by making a statement that America should return to the idealistic way it used to be: "Let it be the dream it used to be" (2). Then the narrator continues to relate nostalgically the longing for an America built on freedom and equality for all. This could be the dream of the author himself. Wagner states of the author, "Like his first masters Whitman and Sandburg, like his fellow black Toomer, and like so many other American poets of the period, Lan... ...tion in Depression" (Ramperstad 371). Commenting on this poem and its author, Langston Hughes, Ramperstad observes, "Perhaps his finest poem of the thirties combined his will to revolution with his Whitman-like nostalgia for a vanishing America." Hughes gives us a richer insight of American idealism, American realism, and what, "America will be!" (73).    Works Cited Hughes, Langston. "Let America Be America Again." _Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing_. 4th ed. Eds. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1995. 723-24. Rampersad, Arnold. "Langston Hughes." _Voices & Visions: the Poet in America_. Ed. Helen Vendler. New York: Random House, 1987. 352-93. Wagner, Jean. "Langston Hughes." _Black Poets of the United States_. Trans. Kenneth Douglas. Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1973, 385-474.   

Unit 7

Principal Sociological Perspectives P1 Unit 7 Functionalism This is the relationship between the parts of society; how aspects of society are functional (adaptive). A strength of Functionalism would be that it states that there are purposes for social conditions or facts. For example, under a functionalist point of view the newspaper deliverer and retail worker all contribute to the function of the entire unit–without serving these purposes, the social structure would not function properly. Also functionalism is considered vital for the smooth running of society, as Durkheim stated.A criticism of the functionalist approach would be it does not address areas of conflict, which undoubtedly characterise modern societies and in principle could be found in all societies. Functionalism assumes that there is consensus: that everyone in the structure holds the same norms and values; that we all essentially believe in and work for the same thing. Functionalism is a theory about the nat ure of mental states. According to functionalists, mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what they are made of. Functionalism is the most familiar or â€Å"received† view among philosophers of mind and cognitive science.Family Functionalists look at how the family as an institution, helps in maintain order and stability in society, and the significance of the family for its individual members. A well know functionalist who have written about the family is George. P. Murdock. Murdock carried out a study that included 250 families. From this he argued that the family achieves four basic functions for its individual members and society. He says these are ‘sexual’, ‘reproductive’, ‘economic’ and ‘educational’ functions. The sexual function refers to the sexual activity.Murdock argued that the family provides to the sexual needs of its adults and also limits sexual access of other member of the society there by maintaining stability. The ‘reproductive’ function is manner and raising children. The family provides the society with new members and assume responsibility for raising them. The family is an ‘economic’ unit, with a division of labour along gender. Murdock considers this division of labour as rewarding for the spouses and as strengthening the bond between them, as they are perceived as doing distinct but complementary work.The ‘educational’ function that Murdock refers to, can also be known as ‘socialisation’. The family has the responsibility of transmitting a society’s way of life, norms and values to the younger members. This function is important because without culture the society wouldn’t survive; too much deviation from the norm would disrupt the stability of the society. Marxism The sociological perspective sees society as structures with interconnected parts, and focuses on the structural features of soci ety, emphasising social differences and the conflicting interests and values of different groups in society.Proletariat – Class of poor people who work for wages. Bourgeoise – Class of wealthy people who have their own means of wealth. Strengths would be that it recognises the power interests of different groups and is good at explaining conflict and change in society. It stresses the role of class struggle (conflict) within society between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (owners). Weakness would be that it doesn’t recognise that people are socially active, with some power and the ability to make choices and influence the direction of their own lives.It focuses on the economy as the driving force of social behaviour and ignores other important influences such as gender, ethnicity and religion. Marxism is a political and sociological perspective based on the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx provided an account of the new class based society that e merged after the industrial revolution. The Marxist perspective questions the functionalist idea that business owners and bosses are morally entitled to keep profits for they are part of the ruling ideology in capitalist society. Family Friedrich Engels is a famous Marxist.He believed that during the early stages of human evolution that property was collectively owned and that the family did not exist. The community formed the family and there was no restraint to sexual access. Although with the development of private ownership of property and the idea of having successors who were to inherit the property, the question of paternity grew in importance and the rules of monogamous marriage were created to control woman’s sexuality and assure the legitimacy of heirs. Feminism Capitalist – Another word for a member of the bourgeoisieFeminism is a movement for social, cultural, political and economic equality of men and women. It is a campaign against gender inequalities and it strives for equal rights for women. Feminism can be also defined as the right to enough information available to every single woman so that she can make a choice to live a life which is not discriminatory and which works within the principles of social, cultural, political and economic equality and independence. Strengths that the sociological feminist theorists had were on how their perception of womanhood was socially constructed and not even real.A weakness of it is that it felt as though the sociological feminists are very judgmental and it feels as though almost all men and most people looked down on women. There are 3 main types of feminist approach: * Marxist feminism * Radical feminism * Liberal feminism Marxist feminism Marxists feminists see woman as oppressed by capitalism and by men or the patriarchal society. They believe that woman produce the next generation of workers and those they provide all the key needs to meet for their children; and prepare them for the wo rk life.They support their partners and cook, clean, and care for the family. Radical Feminism Radical feminists believe that it is not capitalism that dominates woman, and that it is men. They see the woman as the housewife and mother. Liberal Feminism These feminists believe that changes have happened. They believe that since new legislations have been bought out that there is now more equality. Legislation and policy changing, leads to liberal feminists believing that improvements will always be made Family Feminists have sought to analyse the impact of family life on women.Regardless of the numerous differences in their approach and main concern, different feminists tend to agree that women occupy a subordinate position in the family and are exploited in various ways. The Marxist feminists consider capitalism as the main exploiter. This exploitation is seen in terms of the unpaid work they carry out at home. Like the Marxist, they believe that the family also serves capitalism b y reproducing the future labour force, but they also assert that it is not the family as such that suffers more, but the women.It is women that bear the children and assume the main responsibility for their care. Women are also exploited in that they are expected to provide outlets for all the frustration and anger that their husband experience at work and therefore prevent them from rebelling against their employers. Interactionism The interactionist’s perspective is a major theoretical perspective; it focuses on the concrete details of what goes on among individuals in everyday life. It derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction.Its focus is on small groups and how they influence individual behaviour in society. A strength of this would be that it takes into account an individual’s choices they make and how they behave (their free will). It cannot explain where people get the meanings to symbols and that it end s up drawing these answers from other sociological theories, and it doesn't explain social order and how it comes about; this would be a weakness. They do not study where the social roles come from. The evidence of symbolic interaction is that humans use symbols to understand and interact properly with the natural and social world.Symbolic interactionism is a theory of social cognition, which models human interaction among significant concepts like identity, language, meaning, labeling and roles. Family The interactionalist perspective looks at the family dynamics. This view explores the interaction of the family members; this is back and forth talk, gestures and actions that go on in families. The interactionist perspective refuses to identify a â€Å"natural family structure†. The family is not a stock social unit but the creation of its participants as they spontaneously relate to one another. PostmodernismThis is an approach that emphases on the quick changing and uncerta inty in our society. Postmodernists suggest that we cannot talk about well-known institutions such as the family, religion or the economy because nothing stays the same. Postmodernists think that because there is constant change you cannot use structuralist perspectives such as Functionalism and Marxism to understand society. Strength of postmodernism would be that it provides a good critique of modernism and helpfully stresses the use of the aesthetic. Weakness would be that Postmodernism, like modernism, is characterized by astounding arrogance. FamilyOther theories believe that nuclear family is dominant family type within society; postmodernists disagree with this opinion and have different views. Postmodernists argue that this structural approach ignores moral relativism of individuals that they always have a choice of family type and nobody can judge them. Also modernists ignore the increase of family diversity; however there is no ‘best' family type anymore. Collectivis m Collectivism is an approach to providing health and social care services that is reinforced by a government commitment to provide care and support for the vulnerable, funded through taxation and National Insurance.This contrasts with the ‘New right’ that consider welfare to be the responsibility of the individual and their family and believe that the state should play a minimal role. An emphasis is placed on unification and a common purpose. Families are considered very important for personal growth. An advantage to living in a collectivist society is that the group members are close-knit and care for and help one another, which is not always the case in an individualistic society.Another strength would be that communication is very important in a collective group. No one is left out of the mix, and everyone is involved in making decisions. A weakness would be that collectivism stifles individuality and diversity by insisting upon a common social identity, such as nat ionalism, racialism, feminism, or some other group focus. Also collectivism is linked to statism and the diminution of freedom when political authority is used to advance collectivist goals. FamilyFamily ties will be different in different cultures; they will be strong in a collectivist society, Collectivist societies will be more characterized by coexistence of several generations within the household and stronger ties towards the larger family clan. ‘New right’ This is political movement made up especially of Protestants, opposed especially to secular humanism, and concerned with issues especially of church and state, patriotism, laissez-faire economics, pornography, and abortion. They believe that welfare should be largely seen as the responsibility of the individual and their family. The New Right regarded tate support as intrusive and supporting a dependency culture. Mrs Thatcher thought the welfare state produced a society in which people relied on state benefits rather than planning for the future and taking responsibility for their own needs and responsibility. A Strength of this would be that it would get more people that can work but don’t, to go out and work. Also it would benefit people because they would be going out earning their own money and it would be a good social factor. A Weakness of this would be that how do you get the people that have been off work for such a long time back into education and work.Family The New Right Family Ideology is patriarchal, the family is male dominant. Feminists argue that this is negative for women. It ignores the dark side of the family e. g. domestic abuse, poverty, conflict. It is harmful, calling other family-types ‘inadequate’ – schools, advertisements and television reinforce this idea. It is anti-social – it stereotypes, labels and discriminates against other family-types; ‘inadequate’ and has a ‘Them and Us’ theory – Nuclea r families are the only family type, other family types aren’t families. Unit 7 Principal Sociological Perspectives P1 Unit 7 Functionalism This is the relationship between the parts of society; how aspects of society are functional (adaptive). A strength of Functionalism would be that it states that there are purposes for social conditions or facts. For example, under a functionalist point of view the newspaper deliverer and retail worker all contribute to the function of the entire unit–without serving these purposes, the social structure would not function properly. Also functionalism is considered vital for the smooth running of society, as Durkheim stated.A criticism of the functionalist approach would be it does not address areas of conflict, which undoubtedly characterise modern societies and in principle could be found in all societies. Functionalism assumes that there is consensus: that everyone in the structure holds the same norms and values; that we all essentially believe in and work for the same thing. Functionalism is a theory about the nat ure of mental states. According to functionalists, mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what they are made of. Functionalism is the most familiar or â€Å"received† view among philosophers of mind and cognitive science.Family Functionalists look at how the family as an institution, helps in maintain order and stability in society, and the significance of the family for its individual members. A well know functionalist who have written about the family is George. P. Murdock. Murdock carried out a study that included 250 families. From this he argued that the family achieves four basic functions for its individual members and society. He says these are ‘sexual’, ‘reproductive’, ‘economic’ and ‘educational’ functions. The sexual function refers to the sexual activity.Murdock argued that the family provides to the sexual needs of its adults and also limits sexual access of other member of the society there by maintaining stability. The ‘reproductive’ function is manner and raising children. The family provides the society with new members and assume responsibility for raising them. The family is an ‘economic’ unit, with a division of labour along gender. Murdock considers this division of labour as rewarding for the spouses and as strengthening the bond between them, as they are perceived as doing distinct but complementary work.The ‘educational’ function that Murdock refers to, can also be known as ‘socialisation’. The family has the responsibility of transmitting a society’s way of life, norms and values to the younger members. This function is important because without culture the society wouldn’t survive; too much deviation from the norm would disrupt the stability of the society. Marxism The sociological perspective sees society as structures with interconnected parts, and focuses on the structural features of soci ety, emphasising social differences and the conflicting interests and values of different groups in society.Proletariat – Class of poor people who work for wages. Bourgeoise – Class of wealthy people who have their own means of wealth. Strengths would be that it recognises the power interests of different groups and is good at explaining conflict and change in society. It stresses the role of class struggle (conflict) within society between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (owners). Weakness would be that it doesn’t recognise that people are socially active, with some power and the ability to make choices and influence the direction of their own lives.It focuses on the economy as the driving force of social behaviour and ignores other important influences such as gender, ethnicity and religion. Marxism is a political and sociological perspective based on the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx provided an account of the new class based society that e merged after the industrial revolution. The Marxist perspective questions the functionalist idea that business owners and bosses are morally entitled to keep profits for they are part of the ruling ideology in capitalist society. Family Friedrich Engels is a famous Marxist.He believed that during the early stages of human evolution that property was collectively owned and that the family did not exist. The community formed the family and there was no restraint to sexual access. Although with the development of private ownership of property and the idea of having successors who were to inherit the property, the question of paternity grew in importance and the rules of monogamous marriage were created to control woman’s sexuality and assure the legitimacy of heirs. Feminism Capitalist – Another word for a member of the bourgeoisieFeminism is a movement for social, cultural, political and economic equality of men and women. It is a campaign against gender inequalities and it strives for equal rights for women. Feminism can be also defined as the right to enough information available to every single woman so that she can make a choice to live a life which is not discriminatory and which works within the principles of social, cultural, political and economic equality and independence. Strengths that the sociological feminist theorists had were on how their perception of womanhood was socially constructed and not even real.A weakness of it is that it felt as though the sociological feminists are very judgmental and it feels as though almost all men and most people looked down on women. There are 3 main types of feminist approach: * Marxist feminism * Radical feminism * Liberal feminism Marxist feminism Marxists feminists see woman as oppressed by capitalism and by men or the patriarchal society. They believe that woman produce the next generation of workers and those they provide all the key needs to meet for their children; and prepare them for the wo rk life.They support their partners and cook, clean, and care for the family. Radical Feminism Radical feminists believe that it is not capitalism that dominates woman, and that it is men. They see the woman as the housewife and mother. Liberal Feminism These feminists believe that changes have happened. They believe that since new legislations have been bought out that there is now more equality. Legislation and policy changing, leads to liberal feminists believing that improvements will always be made Family Feminists have sought to analyse the impact of family life on women.Regardless of the numerous differences in their approach and main concern, different feminists tend to agree that women occupy a subordinate position in the family and are exploited in various ways. The Marxist feminists consider capitalism as the main exploiter. This exploitation is seen in terms of the unpaid work they carry out at home. Like the Marxist, they believe that the family also serves capitalism b y reproducing the future labour force, but they also assert that it is not the family as such that suffers more, but the women.It is women that bear the children and assume the main responsibility for their care. Women are also exploited in that they are expected to provide outlets for all the frustration and anger that their husband experience at work and therefore prevent them from rebelling against their employers. Interactionism The interactionist’s perspective is a major theoretical perspective; it focuses on the concrete details of what goes on among individuals in everyday life. It derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction.Its focus is on small groups and how they influence individual behaviour in society. A strength of this would be that it takes into account an individual’s choices they make and how they behave (their free will). It cannot explain where people get the meanings to symbols and that it end s up drawing these answers from other sociological theories, and it doesn't explain social order and how it comes about; this would be a weakness. They do not study where the social roles come from. The evidence of symbolic interaction is that humans use symbols to understand and interact properly with the natural and social world.Symbolic interactionism is a theory of social cognition, which models human interaction among significant concepts like identity, language, meaning, labeling and roles. Family The interactionalist perspective looks at the family dynamics. This view explores the interaction of the family members; this is back and forth talk, gestures and actions that go on in families. The interactionist perspective refuses to identify a â€Å"natural family structure†. The family is not a stock social unit but the creation of its participants as they spontaneously relate to one another. PostmodernismThis is an approach that emphases on the quick changing and uncerta inty in our society. Postmodernists suggest that we cannot talk about well-known institutions such as the family, religion or the economy because nothing stays the same. Postmodernists think that because there is constant change you cannot use structuralist perspectives such as Functionalism and Marxism to understand society. Strength of postmodernism would be that it provides a good critique of modernism and helpfully stresses the use of the aesthetic. Weakness would be that Postmodernism, like modernism, is characterized by astounding arrogance. FamilyOther theories believe that nuclear family is dominant family type within society; postmodernists disagree with this opinion and have different views. Postmodernists argue that this structural approach ignores moral relativism of individuals that they always have a choice of family type and nobody can judge them. Also modernists ignore the increase of family diversity; however there is no ‘best' family type anymore. Collectivis m Collectivism is an approach to providing health and social care services that is reinforced by a government commitment to provide care and support for the vulnerable, funded through taxation and National Insurance.This contrasts with the ‘New right’ that consider welfare to be the responsibility of the individual and their family and believe that the state should play a minimal role. An emphasis is placed on unification and a common purpose. Families are considered very important for personal growth. An advantage to living in a collectivist society is that the group members are close-knit and care for and help one another, which is not always the case in an individualistic society.Another strength would be that communication is very important in a collective group. No one is left out of the mix, and everyone is involved in making decisions. A weakness would be that collectivism stifles individuality and diversity by insisting upon a common social identity, such as nat ionalism, racialism, feminism, or some other group focus. Also collectivism is linked to statism and the diminution of freedom when political authority is used to advance collectivist goals. FamilyFamily ties will be different in different cultures; they will be strong in a collectivist society, Collectivist societies will be more characterized by coexistence of several generations within the household and stronger ties towards the larger family clan. ‘New right’ This is political movement made up especially of Protestants, opposed especially to secular humanism, and concerned with issues especially of church and state, patriotism, laissez-faire economics, pornography, and abortion. They believe that welfare should be largely seen as the responsibility of the individual and their family. The New Right regarded tate support as intrusive and supporting a dependency culture. Mrs Thatcher thought the welfare state produced a society in which people relied on state benefits rather than planning for the future and taking responsibility for their own needs and responsibility. A Strength of this would be that it would get more people that can work but don’t, to go out and work. Also it would benefit people because they would be going out earning their own money and it would be a good social factor. A Weakness of this would be that how do you get the people that have been off work for such a long time back into education and work.Family The New Right Family Ideology is patriarchal, the family is male dominant. Feminists argue that this is negative for women. It ignores the dark side of the family e. g. domestic abuse, poverty, conflict. It is harmful, calling other family-types ‘inadequate’ – schools, advertisements and television reinforce this idea. It is anti-social – it stereotypes, labels and discriminates against other family-types; ‘inadequate’ and has a ‘Them and Us’ theory – Nuclea r families are the only family type, other family types aren’t families.

History of Deforestation

History of Deforestation Introduction Deforestation was largely driven by the need to meet man’s needs. In the beginning, these were subsistence-based and individualistic; therefore, the level of destruction was not as enormous.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on History of Deforestation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ancient populations highly depended on wood for fuel, and needed access to land for agriculture. The rise of industrialisation deflated pressures on forests for fuel, but technological developments caused commercialisation of tree-cutting. Patterns of deforestation since early modern times 1600s In the 1600s, deforestation was employed in order to provide man with land for agricultural use. Fire was the preferred method of forest balding among native populations. However, because the population was small, the effects of their activities were not as substantial at the time.1 Later on, European settlers started moving into areas that were previously dominated by natives. They regarded forests as features that needed to be removed. In fact, most farmers in those early times spent most of their time clearing forests, making fences and establishing a new system of agriculture. Implements were few and far between, thus making the methods of deforestation less dependent on technology. However the pioneer farmer was still well aware of the importance of his forests in his life. He did not plan on eliminating all forests because they were crucial resource points. They provided him with food for fuel and house fencing. Forests were also a rich source of nuts, berries and other products. Axmen did most of the clearing through direct cutting. Alternatively, they would cut vital elements of the tree in order to cause the upper part of the tree to fall off gradually.2Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More 1700s In the 1700s shipbuilding became a common activity. The birth of the naval store affected the pattern of deforestation in Britain. A naval store encompassed all those products that were needed in order to run ships. Sails, ropes and planks in the ships required products derived from trees. In the previous century, pioneer farmers had discovered the commercial value of certain tree products. Alongside the products, timber itself was sold to various households through community markets. The products that were derived from trees included tar, turpentine, pitch and potash; they could all be used for various purposes. A critical shift in the eighteenth century occurred when farmers in North America stopped relying on their own citizens to provide a market for their timber-derived products. These were exported to distant locations in Europe; exporting towns were all areas that firmly depended upon the existence of wood to operate. At that time, much of the economy revolved ar ound timber. In the 1600s, most naval supplies for the British navy did not come from North America; they emanated from the Scandinavian countries. However, this dramatically changed when the US was discovered as a source for the products.3 Hemp was obtained from the barks of trees after the trees had been cut off. Individuals would make incisions in certain parts of trees so as to facilitate the collection of the sap, which was later collected in barrels, distilled and sold. Actual use of wood for construction also contributed to massive deforestation in the US. Some of the planks would be employed in the creation of ships. These vessels were small but much in number. Constructors wanted to incorporate the risk of returning empty vessels. Alongside the ship industry, construction of log cabins or houses also contributed towards greater deforestation. Certain individuals built sawmills that would guarantee an ample supply of wood to their townsmen as well as to other external market s. In fact after 1720, numerous sawmills began flourishing.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on History of Deforestation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Most of them were based on contracts between local administrators and apprentices. They were supposed to engage in the deforestation of local trees for the local population first before they could use them for commercial purposes. After several of these sawmills came up, a thriving commercial wood industry emerged. Most of these mills were found very near the forest for convenience. A number of them were primitive in nature because they employed manual labour or simple fulcrums for movement.4 The latter types were powered using water sources and were more efficient than the former type. An export industry started to emerge around the felling of tress. The US began exporting planks and boards to various markets through its coastal towns. This was especially prevalent af ter 1775. Wood was a critical source of energy for most communities in the eighteenth century, and that contributed towards massive deforestation. At the time, most settlers relied upon the use of charcoal for their personal energy use. Iron smelters were one of the most vital consumers of wood in the late 1700s. Iron consumption was common in Britain as far back as the seventeenth century. However, production was low-cost in England because they had discovered coke as a source of energy.5 The same did not occur in the US. Most iron smelters relied upon wood for energy. Furnaces were constructed in a manner that necessitated the use of charcoal. In another part of the world i.e. Japan, forests were also used for a myriad of purposes. Some supplies would be utilised by the army while others were employed domestically for heating and cooking.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, a rapid rise in population meant that forests were inadequate to meet man’s needs. Leaders realized that they needed to alter their patterns of deforestation in order to make it sustainable. This country started a community forest management project that would spearhead the plantation of several tree species. Therefore this part of the earth was one of the initial countries to start reforestation projects. Environmentalism in Japan began in 1660 but intensified in the eighteenth century. Successes were reported years later, i.e. in the twentieth century. 1800s Fuel consumption levels were so high in iron-smelting furnaces thus making it imperative to fell massive acres of trees. In fact, pig iron led to forest recession and shortages in several parts of North America. A number of entrepreneurs had to abandon their furnaces because they lacked ample sources of coal. Usually, most furnace owners either leased or bought forested areas in order to cover their fuel needs. However, such activities contributed to the detriment of forests in approximately ten to fifteen years. Therefore, charcoal burners were responsible for this tragedy in the forests. Unlike their British counterparts, the Americans preferred to use this environmentally unfriendly method because the type of iron that coal made was in demand. Additionally, there was an abundance of wood in the US compared to Britain, which had already started experiencing shortages from as early as the 1600s. In the US, charcoal burning was done through creation of pits in forests. This had a sterilising effect on soil and prevented re-growth of trees in the future. Charcoal burning also ruined tree stands and changed their composition if the tree grew back. Land clearing for farming still continued in the US. However, farmers were sometimes overwhelmed by the amount of pasture land that they created after deforestation. They needed woodland for fuel and pasture for their livestock. Therefore, farmers needed to strike a balance between crop land and land to be used for pasture or woodlands. This continued into the 1800s. After 1860, some stakeholders realized that forests in the US were in danger and they began talking about it. Such individuals were especially concerned about the use of slash and burn techniques. 1900s Energy use in the 1900s changed dramatically, after the discovery petroleumbased products; a lot of pressure was taken off trees. Deforestation was done in order to obtain wood for construction rather than energy use. Additionally, the industrial era depended more on iron than on wood. Colonising countries wanted to preserve their own wood resources so they started tapping their colons’ resources. Deforestation in West Africa was commonplace. Other European countries also secured their own supplies of timber from countries such as Malaysia. The US started getting its resources from Brazil and the Philippines while Japan banked its own trees. It depended on Indonesia and other South Eastern countries.6 Therefore, one may assert that there was a global spread of deforestation. In less-developed parts of the world, tree cutting continued for farming purposes but also for commercial use. In developed nations, creation of paper, construction and other wood-derived products continued to perpetuate the needs for destruction of forests. After the 1960s, some improvements emerged because of the growth of environmentalists and other tree lovers. This caused a decrease in forest destruction and the use of wood alternatives.7 Differences between old and new patterns of use of forests Tree cutting in the old era was done in order to meet immediate needs. Commercial uses of timber were not a priority for those communities. Most wanted to access farmland and provide pasture for their livestock. Since there was plenty of wood supply, most ancient communities did not give much thought to their tree- cutting activities. Therefore, one might add that d eforestation was done on a subsistence level. Individuals lacked the machines and technology needed to engage in massive deforestation. Additionally, because populations were still low in number, forest use was minimal in nature.8 However, current patterns reveal that most deforestation is commercially-based. It is driven by enterprises and can thus prove to be more detrimental than the old approach. Even if deforestation is done for agricultural purposes, one may find that these attempts are often state sponsored and are done in order to facilitate large-s scale agricultural production. Cases such as Indonesia and Brazil are ideal examples of this new pattern of forest use. Their governments actively promoted rural development through construction of roads and commercial agriculture. This is quite different from the kind of forest destruction that was done by European settlers in the US. Their major concern was to meet their immediate needs. Globalisation is also another theme that can be found in new patterns of forest use but not in old ones. Although some wood-derived products were transported to Britain from the US, it was evident that in the seventeenth century, most forests were to be used by locals. Furthermore, it was the locals who did most of the deforestation; they only exported the derivatives of those products to other nations. In new patterns of forest use, distant countries initiated deforestation in different states. Therefore, the process took on an international dimension. For instance, the United States sourced its products from Brazil while Japan sourced its products from Indonesia. This reflects the globalization of deforestation and the need for self preservation. Most developed nations wanted to bank their forests while still enjoying the benefits of wood products. The spread of deforestation may have been caused by international stakeholders just as much as it was caused by locals.9 New patterns of forest use are also different from ol d patterns because current endeavours reflect conservation policies. Many environmentalists have spearheaded efforts in various sectors that directly or indirectly depend on deforestation for survival. These individuals have contributed towards the minimisation of unwarranted forest destruction. Such environmentalists did not exist in the ancient times. Developments in energy sources and technology have minimised the use of trees as sources of fuel in developed nations. This was not true in the past since coal was a vital cause of deforestation. Logging was often done in order to meet energy needs domestically and commercially. Smelting of iron and other industrial related needs took place through wood- derived fuels. Currently, forests are useful for the creation of certain products. However, these products cannot be created from certain parts of trees; they must come from the large scale elimination of trees. Therefore, while new patterns of forest use may have been propelled by o ther needs, they still present a serious threat to forests.10 Conclusion Man has always seen forests as a means to an end; trees enable him to meet his needs. However, changing technological advancements and needs altered the patterns of forest use. Some of the objectives that motivated man to cut trees were eliminated in subsequent times while new ones came into existence. This explains the prevalence of globalisation (international sourcing of wood) and large scale deforestation as trends in forest use today. Bibliography Braudel, F, The Structures of Everyday Life, Harper and Row, New York, 1979. Brimblecombe, P and Pfister, C, The Silent Countdown, Springer, New York, 1990. Cronon, W, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists and the Ecology of New England, Hill and Wang, NY, 1983. Dargavel, J, Fashioning Australia‘s Forests, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995 Goudie, A, The Human Impact on the Environment, 2d ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986 Radkau, J, Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008. Schama, S, Landscape and Memory, Alfred Knopf, New York, 1995. Thirgood, J, Man and the Mediterranean Forest: A History of Resource Depletion, Academic Press, New York, 1981. Williams, M, Americans and their Forests: A Historical Geography, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1989. Williams, M, Deforesting the Earth: From prehistory to global crisis, University of Chicago press, Chicago, 2003. Footnotes 1W Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists and the Ecology of New England, Hill and Wang, NY, 1983. 2 S Schama, Landscape and Memory, Alfred Knopf, New York, 1995. 3 M Williams, Deforesting the Earth: From prehistory to global crisis, University of Chicago press, Chicago, 2003. 4M Williams, Americans and their Forests: A Historical Geography, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1989. 5 P Brimblecombe and C Pfister, The Silent Countdown, Springer, New York, 1990. 6 J Radkau, Natur e and Power: A Global History of the Environment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008. 7 A Goudie, The Human Impact on the Environment, 2d ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986. 8 J Dargavel, Fashioning Australia‘s Forests, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995. 9 F Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life, Harper and Row, New York, 1979. 10 J Thirgood, Man and the Mediterranean Forest: A History of Resource Depletion, Academic Press, New York, 1981.

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